Macheon Yarok (Private Records of Macheon) Part 1

[lotus_genie]

About: The Macheon Yarok is a private collection of court gossip put down by Hwang Hyeon, pen name Macheon, a famous Confucian scholar, poet, and patriot of modern, pre-Japanese occupation Korea. He was one of the Four Great Authors of the Late Joseon Period. His historical writings provide a valuable look at the contemporary politics and society at the end of the Joseon Dynasty.

Warnings: I am not an expert in old literary Chinese, nor am I an expert at pronouncing Korean hanja. I also lack geographic knowledge of Korea, especially when it comes to archaic names. Therefore, it is possible that this translation contains mistakes. I only hope I have translated the main idea of the work correctly.

Copyright: This work is an amateur translation that I'm doing because I'm bored. Any attempts to pass it off as an work of actual literary merit that you can make money from will probably get you laughed off of whatever site you're using. In other words, copy and sell at your own discretion.


Before First Sino-Japanese War

Unhyeon Palace
Our current king's civilian residence occupies the former address of The Royal Calendar and Meteorology Institute, the Kwansanggam, also called the Seounhyeon. Thus, it is called the Unhyeon (Cloud Watching) Palace. At the start of King Cheoljong's reign, there were rumors of a holy personage coming out of the Kwansaggam, and that a kingly aura covered the Unhyeon hills. Indeed, His Majesty was born in that residence. Upon his ascension, the Daewongun Ha-eung expanded and renovated the palace, so that its perimeters covered several li, and four doors were constructed in the four directions, closely resembling the structure of the Royal Palace.

Park Yu-bung's Prophesy about Gojong
Park Yu-bung of Chungcheong Province was an expert at physiognomy. Examining his own face, he exclaimed, "If I were to be blind in one eye, then I would be destined for fame and fortune!" Thus, he stabbed himself in the eye and blinded himself. In his youth, His Majesty visited the seer, who secretly told him, "I see in your face the sun and the heavens, take care not to divulge this to anyone else." After the Jiazi year (first year of Gojong, 1864), Park Yu-bung was promoted from Military Prefect of Namyang to Naval Admiral.

Gojong's Ambition
His Majesty was crowned king at 13 years of age. As he was still a youth, he often attended Royal Lectures taught by court scholars. One day, during a lecture on Mencius, at the line "Shang Tang was satisfied with seventy li, while King Wen of Zhou was satisfied with a hundred li," he exclaimed in righteous indignation "Just seventy or a hundred li is enough to serve as a base for ruling the world, yet what of our nation spanning 3000 li? How shall we prepare our troops, lay siege to Beijing, and avenge the shame of our ancestors?"
None of the attendees at the lecture could respond except for Shin Jong-hui, at the time an army officer candidate assigned to wait on the king as a scribe, who spoke out of turn, saying, "That would be very easy."
The King asked, "What strategy do you propose?"
Jong-hui replied, "Your Majesty needs simply to cultivate Your merit and become a good king."

Prince Wanhwa
Palace maid Miss Lee gave birth to Prince Wanhwa and was awarded the surname of Gye. His Majesty, seventeen years old at the time, was delighted and sought to establish him as Crown Prince. The Daewongun cautioned against being hasty, citing, "What would happen should the Queen become pregnant?"
The King often consulted the matter with Park Yu-bung. Pausing to think it over, Yu-bung advised, "Wait a while."
His Majesty was incensed, believing that Yu-bung was acting on the order of the Unhyeon Daewongun. Not long after that, Yu-bung died.
Ryu Je-gwan of Gurye was an army officer candidate who lived in the capital and an acquaintance of Yu-bung's. One day he paid a visit to Yu-bung's house, only to find his friend writhing on the ground with blood spewing from his orifices, begging Je-gwan to kill him. Shocked and horrified, Je-gwan pushed him away and waved his hands in refusal. In a short time, Yu-bung was dead. Some say he was poisoned on command from the King. That is what Je-gwan has told me.

Jang Kim
Kim Jo-sun's old residence was in Jahadong neighborhood. The neighborhood was located north of Gyeongbok Palace, under the Changui Gate, between Mount Pugak and Mount Inwang. The backdrop mountain crevasses, streams, and forests provide a tranquil isolation, unlike urban climes. The regional accents of the residents when referring to the name of their community either drop vowels to render the name "Jadong", or elongate vowels to result in "Jangdong". Kim Jo-sun, as Royal Father-in-Law, seized power, moving his residence from Jangdong to Gyodong neighborhood. Because he acted as Royal regent, securing power by making three royal marriages within his clan, elevating the power of Royal in-laws beyond any precedents, the Andong Kim clan was hereafter referred to as the Jang Kim. After Jo-sun's death, his sons Yu-geun and Jwa-geun, along with his grandson Byeong-gi, continued to live in Gyodong. When Jo sun's clansman Kim Mun-geun became father-in-law to King Cheoljong, his son Byeong-pil was too young to be involved in politics, but his nephews Byeong-hak and Byeong-guk aided him. They settled in Jeondong neighborhood, and their power was shared with Byeong-gi, so those in the capital referred to them as Jeongdong and Gyodong. Even now, locals will speak of something being in the time of Jeongdong or Gyodong.

Royal In-laws Blighting the Nation
The ancestors of the Jang Kim clan, such as Seonwon (pen name of Kim Sang-yong), Chengeum (pen name of Kim Sang-heon), Mungok (pen name of Kim Soo-hang), and Mongwa (pen name of Kim Jang-jip) were renowned for their virtue and achievements. They carried the hopes of the nation. Jo-sun himself was an erudite scholar and capable administrator, who earned a reputation for great integrity. As for their descendants, they have become greedy and arrogant. They are a blight upon the nation. However, they have dominated the nation for so long, the world only knows of the Jang Kim and not the nation itself. They would say that "the Jang Kim are the bedrock of the nation." Is that really so?

Kim Heung-geun
Of the Jang Kim, only Kim Heung-geun was often reprimanded for his passionate petitions during the time of King Heonjong. Once, having been discharged from his post, he took up residence in a mansion at Yanghwado (west of the Capital), where the King summoned him to act as Minister of Personnel. However, he ignored seven consecutive summons. For a while, his name was highly renowned. Not long after, he returned to the Royal Court and was no longer in danger of demotion. He served several terms as Prime Minister, yet had no significant achievements.

The Coming of the Queen
King Cheoljong died with no heirs. He had always favored our current King, so most of the Kim clan supported placing His Majesty on the throne.
Kim Heung-geun objected with, "So long as the Prince Heungseon lives, the nation will have two rulers. Can we as subjects serve two rulers? If not, you would be better with simply placing Prince Heungseon on the throne."
Kim Byeong-hak made a deal with Prince Heungseon. If his daughter became the new queen, then he would guarantee the Kim clan's support for Heungseon's son.
Once His Majesty successfully ascended, Heungseon reneged on his agreement with Byeong-hak and instead arranged to marry His Majesty to the orphaned daughter of Min Chi-rok, later known as Empress Myeongseong. Kim Byeong-hak's daughter later married Cho Shin-hui.

Daewongun Confiscates Kim Heung-geun's property
At the beginning of Jiazi year (first year of Gojong, 1864), the Daewongun subtly tried to exercise his influence. Seeing this, Kim Heung-geun gossiped with others of the court, saying, "From time immemorial, relatives with no official positions should not interfere in government. If the Daewongun has the good sense to immediately stop and return to his private estate, then he will live out his life in wealth and security."
Not long after, power over both Inner and Exterior Affairs belonged to the Daewongun. For the previous comments, he hated Heung-geun most out of any of the Jang Kims. He confiscated several tens of acres of Heung-geun's estate. In addition, Heung-geun had a vacation home in Samgyedong neighborhood outside the North Gate. The Daewongun made an offer to purchase it, but was turned down by Heung-geun. The Daewongun again made a request, this time to have a day to tour the gardens. It was an ancient custom of the capital that any who owned had a garden estate could not deny entry to guests who requested to tour the property. Heung-geun was forced to comply. The Daewongun then persuaded his son, His Majesty the King, to come on the tour with him. Heung-geun never entered the Samgyedong estate again, on the grounds that it was against the ethics of a subject to reside in a house that had been graced by His Majesty's jade feet. It later fell into the Daewongun's possession.

Sedo Nicknames
Ever since Hong Guk-yeong held power, those Royal In-laws dominating the court were called Sedo. Those designated as Sedo would mention their place of origin, much like famed ministers of an earlier, more enlightened time would title themselves after their birthplace, such as Changsha, Fenyi, Jiangling, Guixi. That is why the Kim are called Jeongdong and Gyodong and the Cho are called Jeondong. Since the Daewongun resided in the Unhyeon Palace, he was nicknamed Unhyeon. Not only Sedo, but normal government officials all scrambled to imitate him, attaching the word "villa" to the names of their neighborhoods for "Something-or-other Villa." If they were born in Hoedong neighborhood, then it would be Hoegak Villa, or if they were born in Seungdong neighborhood, it would be Seunghak villa.

"The Daewongun instructs..."
During the Daewongun's regency, from Jiazi (first year of Gojong, 1864) to the tenth year Guiyou (1873), the people of the nation lived in a state of constant terror. People tutted their tongues and cautioned each other against discussing the government, always acting like demons were listening outside the door and ready to spring at a moment's notice. In past times, teachers began their instruction with "The King seems to have said...", yet during those ten years, they began with the five characters of "the Daewongun instructs..." This practice spread throughout the Palace and the nation. Only when the King began personally governing in the year Jiawu did people resume the old practice.

Daewongun's Four Party Plan
When Daewongun first began his regency, he often used conferences with other officials to confidently tell them, "I would transform a thousand miles to mere inches. I would slice Mount Taishan into flat plains. I would raise the Southern Gate by three stories. What do you esteemed gentleman have to say about this?"
None of the other officials knew how to answer. Kim Byeong-gi, speaking before anyone else, replied, "As long as you think of a thousand miles as mere inches, then there are mere inches. If you would add three stories to the Southern Gate, then it is three stories higher. My lord, what could you not accomplish today, now that you are an official of the highest rank. Yet Mount Taishan will be Mount Taishan. It will not be easily flattened!"
After Byeong-gi left, the Daewongun remained deep in thought, finally saying, "I can find a way. When I spoke of a thousand miles and mere inches, I meant I would support the Imperial clan. When I spoke of adding three Stories to the Southern Gate, I mean I would elevate those of the Southerner Party. When I spoke of flattening Mount Tainshan, I mean I would suppress the Noron Party."

The Ascension of the Southerner Party
The Southerner party, ever since the Jiaxu year (year 20, 1693) of King Sukjong, had been disgraced and expelled without exception. This party had no Exam Proctors after Gwon Yu, nor Grand Secretaries after Chae Jae-gong. Though they all served the same government, all the ministers were affiliated with either the Noron or Soron parties and engaged in their partisan conflicts, no matter how high or low their positions. There were also very few Northerner Party members, and those who were still serving sought out one of the two great parties to be affiliated with. Daewongun started by employing the descendants of Prince Inpyung, who were descended from the Prince's third son, and thus with the policies of the Southerner Party woven into their blood and guts. Once that had succeeded, Daewongun used both Northerner and Southerner in equal amount. Thus he made Yu Hu-jo Prime Minister, and followed him with Han Gye-won. Both of them were Southerners. He also made Im Baek-gyeong Prime Minister, and followed him with Gang Ro. Both of them were Northerners. Cho Seong-gyo the Southerner served as Chief Scholar, and would have been succeeded by Northerner Kim Se-ho, but because the Daewongun lost his power then, then appointment did not go through. All the other inconsequential posts at the Royal Academy, Area Supervisors, and Regional Offices, were instantly used up, mostly filled with Northerners or Southerners. Yet the Noron party, having held power over several generations, held sway in the central and regional governments and were hard to uproot. Therefore, of those who held government positions throughout the land, the Noron Party still affiliated with two-thirds of them.

Yi Se-bo Changes his Name
Prince Gyeongpyeong, personal name Se-bo, was a clan brother of King Cheoljong. During the Reign of Cheoljong, he had a bitter enmity with the Kim clan, and as a result had nearly died several times. After the Jiazi year (first year of Gojong, 1864), he changed his name to In-yeung. His titles were revoked but he was given a government position. The Daewongun hated Kim Byeong-gi's stubbornness and sought to remove him. However, dreading his clan's power, he could only endure patiently for a long while. Finally, Byeong-gi retired to Yeoju City, and Daewongun used the chance to appoint In-yeung Magistrate of Yeoju. Though he subjected Beyong-gi to any number of humiliations, he could never kill him. It is apparent the might of the Jang Kim still strikes deep terror in the hearts of men.

The Reconstruction of Gyeongbokgung Palace
The Gyeongbokgung Palace was subject to many conflagrations during the middle part of Our Dynasty. After being burned by the Japanese during the Renchen Invasion (Hideyoshi's invasion, 1592-1598), the site was abandoned and no longer repaired, with only the stairs left standing. In the Yichou (second) year of His Majesty, it was rebuilt. The construction completed after several years, and the royal court moved in during the Dingmao (fourth) year. The grand scale of the palace was unprecedented in the Orient. At the start of the project, work could not proceed because of lack of funds, so the Daewongun confiscated the savings of several rich families around the Capital and used their money as funds, leaving the bankrupted people to stare at each other. This was the policy pursued through the construction. The funds were called "Wonnapjeon" or "Willing donations", but the people retorted that these were not willing donations, rather they were grudging donations.

Sinnangjeon and Suyongjeon
At the time, there were hundreds of methods to collect money. The Capital had an entrance fee, while provincial regions had taxes based on family size. The people called this the Sinnangjeon, or scrotum tax. There were families taxed based on the fields they owned, and people called this Suyongjeon, or water use tax. Government workers also collected the peasants' broken pots, kettles, plows, and plowshares, going from door to door to check the accumulated weight of each household.

Stamping out corruption
Toward the end of King Cheoljong's reign, corrupt generals and greedy officials harshly exploited the commoners and curried favors with the rich and powerful. The peasants were left destitute, and this resulted in the Renxu Uprising (Thirteenth Year of Cheoljong, 1861). Taking this as lesson, the Daewongun meticulously investigated the transgressions of his tax collectors. Though those guilty of embezzling were far fewer than before, all of them received severe punishments with no quarter. Thus, there were very few cases of corruption during the project.

The Abolition of the Hwayangdong Academy at the Mandongmyo Temple
The Mandongmyo Temple is located in the Hwayangdong neighborhood of Cheongju. The Temple was created according to the desires of Uam (Song Si-yeol), so the Ancestral Altar of Uam is located close by. People referred to the Confucian institutions attached to Uam Altar the Hwayangdong Academy. The scholars employed at the academy would gather the ruffians of the Hojung region and incarcerate the local peasants through their letters of summons. They bled the people of the area dry down to their very marrow, and were the parasites of the South. The Academy had not yet been established for a century, yet the local authorities feared their patrons and dared not investigate their doings.
When the Daewongun was young, whenever he happened to enter the Academy, he would be ridiculed by the scholars working there. It left him with a deep hatred of the Academy. When he came into power, he ordered the scholars of the Academy arrested and killed, and furthermore abolished the Hwayangdong Academy. Wary of the corruption behind said academy, he ordered all academies and ancestral altars throughout the nation closed down or destroyed. Only forty-eight establishments remained, all dedicated to esteemed luminaries or those who made great patriotic contributions to their country. The Daewongun dissolved the Mandongmyo Temple. The Ming Emperor's Spirit Plaque and the temple's title tablet were moved to the Bukwon Daebodan, the Altar of Great Gratitude dedicated to the Ming Dynasty, while the Hwayangdong Academy went abandoned.
The establishment of academies started out with good intentions. Yet over time, their purpose grows more and more sullied each day. Of those who can read the Heart Sutra, or the Jin Si Lu (Record of Things at Hand) and can otherwise garnish themselves with knowledge, or those who can arm themselves and enlist when some disturbance is at the border, whenever their descendants accumulate stores of some 100 koku, they inevitably give free reign to their sly ambitions, and, flourishing their epistles, transform the nation into a scene of bestial chaos. Any item in excess provokes an opposing reaction, such is the principle demonstrated here. The order to abolish academies has long been coming. It is not to be criticized only because it was part of the Daewongun's policies. At the time this policy was implemented, the people had become entrenched in familiar ways, and once this lifestyle was disrupted by suddenly emptying the scholars from their lairs in the academies, they were provoked to hollers of outrage and gathering for royal entreatiess. Those who know the truth can only laugh at this silly display.

The Tomb of Prince Namyeon
Yi Gu, the Prince Namyeon, had four sons, with the Heungseon Daewongun being the youngest. When Prince Namyeon first passed away, the eighteen-year-old Prince Heungseon followed the Feng Shui master to Daedeoksa Temple on Mount Deoksan. The Feng Shui master pointed at a certain pagoda and said, "that is a very auspicious site, and will bring the holder's descendants untold prosperity." Heungseon then returned home and sold off all his possessions, acquiring twenty thousand taels of silver. He took half that amount and bribed the Abbot of that temple to set fire to the building. Thus, the temple burned to the ground. Heungseon led the funeral party to the site, swept away the ashes, and stopped to rest for the night. Halfway through the night, the elder brothers suddenly awoke, all claiming to have seen a dream of an old man in white.
The old man angrily berated them, saying, "I am the god of the tower, why have you trespassed upon my dwelling? Should you bury your dead here, before the King's autumn hunt, all four of you brothers will die suddenly and painfully! Leave now!"
The three of them had all seen one dream. Knowing this, Heungseon eagerly declared, "If this is true, then it is honestly a auspicious sign! Each man dies only at his appointed time, how can any angry god harm us with his haunting? Furthermore, right now, the royal clan is subject to turnovers every day, and we brothers are constantly in danger! Compared with spending our days sheltering under the roof of the Jang Kim, eking out a living begging for their tender mercies, would it not be better to all go in an instant? My brothers, all of you have sons, while I am the only one who leaves none of my blood behind. Yet I fear not death! Therefore, my brothers, say no more."
The next day, they set to work demolishing the pagoda. The foundation of the pagoda was made completely of stone. They used an axe to try and chop it up, but the axe bounced away. Heungseon himself grabbed the axe and roared toward the heavens. After that, the axe no longer bounced away. Once their father had been safely interred, the brothers feared that the grave-site would later be moved, so they sealed it away by pouring over it several pounds of molten metal. After that, they covered it with earth.
Returning to the Capital, they brought along the head monk. Crossing over the ford of Suwon Tabujin, the monk suddenly cried from aboard the ship "Fire!" Covering his head, he acted as if he were set aflame, and not long after jumped into the water and drowned.
The rest of the populace referred to the grave as the Tomb of Prince Namyeon. It was classified as a Pokchihyeong, a Reclining Pheasant Shape tomb. Fourteen years after the funeral, His Majesty was born.

Bodeoksa Temple
After the Jiazi year (first year of Gojong, 1864), government resources were used to construct a temple on the remains of Daedeoksa called Bodeoksa Temple. It was a grand and gorgeous structure constructed with gold and gems and the finest materials. It was endowed with the richest plots of land and awarded many treasure. In the winter of Bingyin (third year of Gojong, 1866), foreign pirates made their way into the country via the city of Ganghwa. Those of our citizens who had their hearts corrupted by their evil cult let them to Deoksan, where the pirates attempted to dig up the tomb. However, it was sealed too firmly, so they merely set fire to the mound and left. The Daewongun often quoted Yi Geon-chang, remembering the events of the entombment, "After the tower fell, there was discovered within two white porcelain plates, with two patties of dried camphor tea, and three sarira beads. These relics looked like miniature heads and were very lustrous. I dropped them in water to swallow them down, and a blue gas rose through the water, as if wisps of cloud had formed."

Seogpa Orchids
The Daewongun's pen name was Seogpa. When he was young, he studied art under Kim Jeong-hui, the scholar Wandang. His specialty was drawing orchids. When he came into power, his Seogpa orchids suddenly became very popular. Even after he was imprisoned in Baoding, the Chinese bought up all of his works.
His Majesty, our current king, is the Daewongun's second son, and he was chosen to succeed to the hallowed throne. The Daewongun's first son Yi Jae-myeon, courtesy name Mu-gyeong, had already been appointed Daegyo before King Cheoljong's ascension. He had two daughters, the elder of which married Cho Gyeong-ho, the younger married Cho Jeong-gu. The Daewongun's concubine-born son Yi Jae-seon was a military officer with the position of Byeolgunjig, officer of reserve forces. In the winter of Xinsi (eighteenth year of Gojong, 1881), he was jailed along with the rest of An Ki-yeong's co-conspirators and commanded to commit suicide. His daughter married Yi Wan-yong.

Daewongun's Debauchery
The Daewongun's wife Lady Min was the daughter of Min Chi-gu. Her relationship with her husband was extremely loving and harmonious. After her son's ascension during the Jiazi year (first year of Gojong, 1864), she often invited the wives and mothers of officials and widowed society women to her home. There was a constant flow of women, and the hostess would allow the Daewongun to peep on their activities, then select the most beautiful of them to exercise his lusts upon. The shameless ones among the women would enjoy themselves so much that they forgot to return home, or take advantage of the attentions and demand government positions for their husbands and sons. These events were in plain sight of both officials and commoners.

Tangbeakjeon and Qing Money
During the palace construction project, Wonnapjeon donations were again not able to cover the costs. In spring of Bingyin (third year of Gojong, 1866), the government minted special Tangbeakjeon coins, one of which was worth a hundred ordinary coins. Prices climbed rapidly and there came to be many counterfeiters. Even severe penalties could not stop them, so the Tangbeakjeon was abolished not long after. Then in Dingmao year (Fourth Year of Gojong, 1867), they switched over to Qing currency. Though this deterred counterfeiters, prices rose again. After using these coins for four or five years, until the first month of the Jiaxu year (Eleventh Year of Gojong, 1874), they could not be discontinued. While these coins were used throughout the country, the only regions not to use them were Yeongnam and Kwanbuk.

The Massacre of Catholics
The Catholics first spread into the East during the reign of King Jeongjo. Since then, they have been subject to multiple exterminations, but there have always remained those who worship in private. At the start of the Jiazi Year (First Year of Gojong, 1864), the former Royal Secretary Nam Jong-sam, the Palace Degree Holder Hong Bong-ju, and the Frenchman who had taken on the localized name of Chang Gyeong-il (Siméon-François Berneux) all submitted themselves to arrest and execution. Nam Jong-sam was the son of Nam Sang-gyo, scion of a famed Northerner clan. Both father and son were widely revered for their eloquence. Jong-sam's confession claimed that he had visited foreign nations and become an official in the American government, in a position analogous to our country's Minister of Personnel. Bong-ju had taken Berneux in as his son in law, and he operated out of Bong-ju's home. They possessed several cabinets full of Western needles. Nam Sang-gyo starved to death in Gongju Jail, and the investigation extended to his various associates. All his supporters and confederates were thoroughly interrogated, and countless people died, about twenty thousand throughout the entire affair.

Everyone Already Knows
In recent dialogue, there came to be the three-word phrase "everyone already knows", which, as a subject of conversation, averts a certain sensitive phrase. It refers to something that everyone already knows, and for those who do not know, they would do best not to discuss it. After the Daewongun came into power, he was merciless with his executions. In addition to heretics and counterfeiters, there were also several hundreds of thousands sentenced to death for crimes such as sedition, crime by association, and conspiracy. The executioners grew tired of having to put people to death. As soon as they received a death row inmate, they would take a piece of white paper, fold it up to cover the victim's face, then wet the paper and press down. The inmate would not be able to breathe and would thus suffocate to death. Those who understood the details explained that "everyone already knows" referred to the papering execution method, since both were pronounced "domoji".

Yi Kyeong-ha
Yi Kyeong-ha was very much valued by the Daewongun for his services. He was both general and arresting officer. There was no limit to his executions. The Daewongun often said, "Yi Kyeong-ha has no other talents, but he is useful because he knows how to kill and who to kill." He would also say, "Yi Kyeong-ha does not kill indiscriminately. All his victims are heretics and counterfeiters and others who have forfeited their lives."

Printing of Haeinsa Temple Tripitaka Koreana
The hermit monk Man-in once visited His Majesty's civilian residence. On his second visit, he congratulated His Majesty, saying "One day you shall be the ruler who restores prosperity to this land." At the start of the Jiazi year, the Daewongun sought him out. When the Daewongun first found him, he asked Man-in what he desired. Man-in replied, "What would a hermit have to desire? I ask for only one boon. If I might have a copy of the thousands of sutras held in the Haeinsa Temple Sutra Storage then my wish will be fulfilled." The Daewongun ordered a great printing project, and Man-in himself oversaw the copying process. Once the copies were completed, Man-in took his sutras and headed out to sea. No one knows where he went to. Since ancient times, the Haeinsa Janggyeong Panjeon, the Sutra Storage Hall, went unmolested by bird droppings, and had other miraculous phenomenon attached. All this ceased once Man-in went to sea. Gossipers say that there were divine wards hidden in the print blocks, and Man-in stole them away, which is why the Sutra Storage Hall has been subject to misfortunes. Others say that when the Daewongun was young, he asked a sorcerer how he should avert disaster in the future. The sorcerer replied that he would be able to keep himself safe if he slew ten thousand people. Though the Daewongun killed ten thousand people, he did not realize that it actually referred to Man-in, whose name contained the word for "ten thousand." However, since Man-in ultimately brought no trouble to the Daewongun, these alleyway rumors were merely rumors. At the time, though, they were very widely spread.

The Byeongin French War
In the ninth month of Bingyin (third year of Gojong, 1866), French ships docked at Ganghwa Island. Since they were all reconnaissance of light attack vessels, it was likely they had no intentions of raiding the mainland. Others say because Berneux and others were killed, and the foreign embargo was very strict, the French had come to seek revenge. The military prefect Yi In-Ki fled in fear. The city then fell into the hands of the enemy. The foreigners occupied Ganghwa for days and left with massive amounts of spoils. The nation had seen Ganghwa as an insurmountable natural defensive line, so it was well stocked with supplies and precious cargo. After this, Yi Kyeong-ha was commissioned Grand Coordinator and Provincial Governor, with Yi Won-hui as Central Commander, and given five thousand Royal Guardsmen to command. The expedition camped at Munsusans Fort, within sight of Ganghwa, but they were afraid to cross the water and attack.
Regimental Commander Yang Heon-su requested to be deployed in a punitive attack against the foreigners. Won-hui would have executed him for insubordination, but Heon-su said, “Rather than wait for death, I would rather bring death to these rebels! Please, I only ask that you give me a single battalion.”
Having no choice, Won-hui reluctantly gave him three-hundred artillerymen. Heon-su then crossed the Sondolmok Strait by night and advanced to Junjoksan Fort. The next day, the foreigners exited their base. They would have boarded their boats, but because of the low tide, they intended to tarry a little longer at the mountain fort. Thus, they headed to the outside of the Southern gate. The troops hidden there ambushed them, and the enemy fled. Heon-su’s troops opened fire after them with cannons, inflicting thirty casualties. Heon-su returned in victory, and as a result was promoted to Military Inspector of Hwanghae. A full year later, he was promoted to Grand Marshal. After the Disturbance, heretical teachings were banned, and His Majesty issued an Edict Admonishing Heresy.

Yi Si-won's Martyrdom
The late former Minister of Personnel Yi Si-won was the descendant of Prince Deokcheon, who had been stripped of his titles due to his involvement in the Sin-Im Calamity. Si-won lived in Sagok of Ganghwa and had passed his examinations during the reign of King Sunjo. He was a modest and upright man who was always ready to give his life for his country. When the foreign bandits occupied his home, he passionately cited the precedent of Jiang Wanli, and along with his younger brother, former Military Prefect Yi Jiwon, took poison and died. He was seventy-seven years old.
When news of his demise spread, the court was shocked. He was given the posthumous name of Chungjeong, Loyal and Faithful. The Secretary-General of the Judiciary was dispatched to participate in his memorial services. At the time, people debated whether or not his act was actually courageous. Afterwards, the late Minister's grandson Yi Geon-chang, acting as Ambassador to China, toured Beijing with Deputy Minister of Justice Huang Yu. Yu gifted Geon-chang with a short summary extolling his late grandsire's virtue, saying, "He dwells in a place without death, he possesses a will to never forget what he had learned." It is now renowned world-wide as a authentic record.

Lax Standards for Dingmao Candidates
Every round of Palace Examinations selects 200 passing candidates. Yet in His Majesty's Dingmao (fourth) year, there was a special decree that selected among participating candidates all scholars at same age as His Majesty and added them toward the bottom of the passing list. Also, all of the Royal clan members there on site, regardless of closeness or distance of relations, were given His Majesty's grace and allowed to pass the exams. As a result, there came to be a surplus of government candidates.

Daewongun's Porters
Colloquially, the servants who greet guests are called Cheongjik, or porters. The Daewongun's porters all consisted of strongmen and ruffians. Every time a guest arrived, these porters would mock them and laugh at them. High officials would often be humiliated by them.

Daewongun's Hiring Policy
Those that the Daewongun hired were required to be handsome of face and nimble of limb. Reckless braggarts were highly valued, while all those mature and scholarly were scorned. Thus, he courted the services of drinkers, gamblers, and thugs. Those who had beautiful whiskers, or who played instruments, or humorous conversationalists, all received profitable positions. The Daewongun was also fond of magic tricks, and fortunetellers and alchemists never left his side. After Bingyin (third year of Gojong 1866), he held Palace Exams, but ordered the members of the royal clan to participate, and referred to these exams as Royal Family Exams.
He also compiled the Royal Family Daedongbo, or Grand Genealogy. All those with the surname Yi who were connected to the Wansan region, commonly known as Jeonju District were counted as family and included into the genealogy, thus granting them noble status. As a result, one after another, country bumpkins and untouchables changed their family's ancestral seats and became members of the royal clan. They would hold flower viewing banquets in the Jongchinbu, the Ministry of Royal Family affairs, with up to sixty or seventy thousand attendees. The Daewongun was delighted, saying, "I have gained a hundred thousand good troops for my nation."
In Wuchen (fifth year of Gojong, 1868), he held a Grand Family Gathering for the royal clan, and formally held the Royal Family Literary and Martial Exams.

Yi Choe-heung and the Daewongun
Prince Heungin, personal name Choi-heung, was the third elder brother of the Daewongun. Seeing his brother's power trips, he greatly disapproved. While the Tangbeokjeon were being issued, whenever his cooks went shopping for ingredients, he would have them bring the vendors before him. He would then personally count out the payment and say, "How absurd that one coin can substitute for a hundred coins!" Thus he would pay them as if each Tangbeokjeon were worth only one coin. There would be many who could reap handsome profits from him.

Queen Dowager Sinjeong's Edict
After King Cheoljong died, Queen Sinjeong used her authority as the Grand Queen Dowager to oversee military and government affairs. She arranged to adopt and enthrone our current king. At the time, Cho Du-sun, serving as Royal Instructor, wrote down in the Royal Edict, "The second son of Prince Heungseon shall be heir and succeed to King Cheoljong's Crown."
But Queen Sinjeong harshly demanded, "You should write that he succeeds to King Ikjong's Crown!"
Do-sun dared not go against her will.
If His Majesty were to inherit King Cheoljong's crown, then Empress Dowager Kim would serve as regent, but if he were to inherit King Ikjong's crown, then the regency would be in the hands of Queen Sinjeong herself. When Cheoljong first inherited the throne, he should have succeeded to King Ikjong's crown, but Queen Sunwon longed to take power, so she ordered that the Royal Edict declare Cheoljong had succeeded Sunjo's crown. Queen Sinjeong had learned from that.

Ganghwa Defense Base
After the Byeongin Disturbance, the government established the Jinmuyeong, the Island Defense Base, on Ganghwa Island to deter foreign forces. They staffed the base with three thousand artillerymen under the command of the Military Prefect, and also supplied the base with field taxes from the three southern regions. Referred to as Poryangmi, or cannon grain, the rice measured several tens of thousand of koku. Corrupt officials used this chance to defraud the people, so the southern peasantry sank into dire straits.

Oedeungdan
A division commander, promoted one grade, would be called a oedeungdan, or outer liason officer, and would be counted as a corps commander. After Jiaxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1874), this post was abolished.

Baek Lak-seo
Baek Lak-seo was the Governor of Jeonju. The Daewongun often toured Jeonju, sometimes to the point of exhaustion. Lak-seo would always be a gracious host to him. After Jiazi, he relied on his friendship with the Daewongun to terrorize his constituents, spreading his malice to the entire prefecture. At the start of Jiaxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1874), Eom Se-yeong, acting as the Royal Inspector of Jeolla Province, executed Baek Lak-seo under order of Min Seung-ho. At the time, the stone bridge at Namcheon River had fallen into disrepair, so Lak-seo's property was confiscated and went toward the bridge repair project.

North village and South village
The Southerner Choi Eu-hyeong successively occupied several important positions such as Minister of Personnel and Professor of the Office of Special Advisers (Hongmungwan), and, himself having been ennobled, was placed in charge of assigning noble titles. He would often ride a buggy to the North Village, where he would raise his fan to cover his nose and remark, "How vile the stench of the Noron party!" The area north of the clock tower of the Capital's main street was called the North Village and mostly occupied by affiliates of the Noron party. The southern area was called South Village and occupied by associates of the Soron and the rabble of the three lower classes.

Daewongun's Fan
Whenever court officials entered or exited a place, there would be an escort shielding them with a bansho court fan. This has been the custom since ancient times. Yet Daewongun used double fans, shaped after rigid fans but in a larger scale. They were long and oval and waved on long bamboo poles. The surface was dyed into a bansho leaf pattern.

Asodang Villa
The beach of Gongdeokli is downstream from the Dongjin Ford. It is a gorgeous, sparkling hilly area occupied by numerous rows of peasant cottages. The Daewongun demolished cottages, converted the area to his mausoleum, and built a villa upon the land. He called the villa Asodang, the Villa of My Laughter, and the prepared grave Usocheo, the Place Where I yet Laugh. He ordered Shin Heon to be manager of the villa.

Scholar General, Fortunate General
Grand Marshal Shin's personal name was originally Gwan-ho, but he changed it during His Majesty's reign to Heon. He was skilled in calligraphy and literature, and thus renowned as a scholar general. He was also a kind and honest man, with intelligent, capable sons who brought honor to his household. Thus, he was also renowned as the fortunate general. He became known to the Daewongun, who commissioned him many times to lead epeditions as general. The construction of artillery bunkers in key position on Ganghwa, from Sondolmok Strait to Gabgojijin Ford for several tens of li, all occurred during the tenure of Military Prefect Shin.
The greatest warriors of the age, such as Chae Dong-geon, Chung Gi-won, and Kim Hoeng, had all served the Daewongun in some capacity or another. Dong-geon and Hoeng were renowned for their wisdom, Gi-won was famed for his restraint and caution, and Yi Keong-ha and Kim Geon were known for their courage and ferocity. Only Shin Heon was graceful and refined, and knew how to please his superiors.

The Shinmi Disturbance
In the summer of Xinwei (eighth year of Gojong, 1871), American forces invaded Ganghwa. Former Military Inspector Eo Jae-yeon, serving as Commandant, attempted to repel them. He was defeated and killed in battle. Jae Yeon led his Royal guard into Fort Gwangseongbo (Fort McKee). Fighting a desperate battle, he set up defensive formations but did not use scouts. Taking advantage of the cover of fog, the enemy entered by climbing over the fort's walls. Wielding his sword, Jae-yeon fought ferociously. After his sword broke, he pulled out his sidearm and shot at the enemy. All those hit by his bullets died instantly. Once he ran out of bullets, frenzied enemy soldiers bayoneted him. He died standing, not moving one foot from his position. The enemies cut off his head and pulled back. With Jae-yeon's death, the enemy realized our army was well prepared, so they retreated.
When news of the defeat reached the Capital, the court was shocked. He was posthumously promoted to Minister of War, given the title Chungjang (Loyal and Strong). When his funeral procession returned to the Capital, the Daewongun intimidated the court, saying "Those who will not go welcome Military Inspector Yu's bier must be Catholics!" Thus, the courtiers flooded to the welcome procession. The line of carriages and horses stretched for several tens of miles. Hoary-headed old men declared that even the funeral of Chung Si, in the Guiyou year of Sunjo (Thirteenth Year of Sunjo, 1811). Jae-yeon's brother Jae-sun joined the army as a common soldier. He died alongside his brother and was posthumously given the position of Associate Counselor of Personnel.

The Yeonghae Rebellion
In the Spring of Jisi (sixth year of Gojong, 1869), outlaws seized control of Gwangyang city. They were soon caught by the magistrate, Yoon Yeong-sin. In the spring of Xinwei (eighth year of Gojong, 1871), the inhabitants of Yeonghae rebelled. The District Magistrate Yi Jeong died attempting to flee. People were caught in a panic and there were many people who fomented rebellion. Yeong-sin was illiterate, but was widely known for his heroism, so the Daewongun very much approved of him. After that, based on his achievement, he was made Inspector of Finances. Yi Jeong was the descendant of Yi Jae, Duke Munjeong. His in-laws were extremely powerful. He was praised for his patriotic sacrifice, promoted posthumously, and given a title. His son was also given a government position.

Chung Won-yong
Chung Won-yong's courtesy name was Seonji and his pen name was Geyongsan. He was the descendant of Chung Yangpa, personal name Taehwa. He passed his examinations at the start of King Sunjo's reign. Early in his career, he was promoted and trained by Kim Jo-sun. He eventually reached the office of Chief State Councillor, or Yeonguijeong. He lived to ninety-years-old, going back and forth between the three highest offices of state. He was an experienced elder statesman and a mature, even-handed administrator who was highly respected among both officials and commoners. Yet he associated heavily with the powerful elite, going along with the flow of the times and currying favor with whoever held power. Everyone compared him to Hu Guang of the Han Dynasty.

Hoebang and Hoehuon
Seonji had the fortune to celebrate his Hoebang, the sixtieth anniversary of his success in the royal exams large and small. His marriage also reached Hoehuon, the golden anniversary of sixty years. He had three sons. The eldest Chung Gi-se served as secretary-general, and a grandson Chung Beom-jo served as deputy minister. They all survived him. He was a man who had both fortune and power and enjoyed a peaceful old age. There is not one man in recent memory who can match him. When His Majesty our current king underwent his royal engagement, he required a man who had good fortune to act as wooer and deliver his engagement presents. Wonyong matched the criteria.

Hong Won-Sik
The Daewongun was fond of saying, "My sons should be brave and strong, like Kim Byeong-gi. But in elegance and congeniality, they should match Hong brothers."
Hong Won-Sik was a member of the Southerner Party. He and his brother Hong Geon-sik had secured second and third place in the same round of exams. The Daewongun loved them very much.

Kim Byeong-gi's Patriotism
During the Byeongin Disturbance, Kim Byeong-gi had retired to Yeoju. He heard the news that the Capital was in an uproar, and refugees had escaped to places all over the country. He told his family, "My entire life, I have been served well by my nation, now, I shall either live or perish alongside my government! None of you should fear death!"
That very day, he gathered up his possessions and headed to the Capital. When the Daewongun heard of this, he was deeply impressed.

The Mark of "Seon"
Several Capital officials originally from the provinces ran away one after another during the Byeongin Disturbance. When the Daewongun found out through his network of spies, he went through the Record of Hat Ornaments, the registrar of officials in government, and placed the character "seon" next to their names. Everyone thought he had marked them for death, but after the Disturbance was over, he merely discharged them and never commissioned them again.

Jeong In-hon Compared to Yi Hang-ro and Gi Jeong-jin
During the reign of Prince Gwanghae, Yi Yi-cheom held power. He promoted Jeong In-hong to Prime Minister, one of the Three Excellencies. Every time there was a big decision, the two of them would take the same stance. Using the facade of Confucian ethics, they worked their hidden agendas. Obviously, those involved in government at the time would follow at their heels. However, when the political situation shifted, those same followers would prop up some retired scholar as their leader. Though their morality varies, there was not one who would not hide behind some esteemed hermit. Come to Daewongun's era, he shamelessly summoned his retired rivals, the Scholar of Yeogye Yi Hang-no and the Scholar of Nosa Gi Jeong-jin, to help him dispel heresy in the wake of the Byeongin Disturbance. Hang-no was especially verbose in his criticism, submitting an impassioned petition that was called the best petition of the century. Though Hang-no and Jeong-jin rose meteorically to achieve the rank of lesser secretaries, their education and written works could fulfill the hopes of those who depended on them, and they conducted themselves with integrity. They were completely different from those who would kowtow to those in power for a shortcut into the government.

Army Service and Dongpojeon
The army would impress men into service, and collect a cloth tax from the women, along with inflicting countless other abuses upon the people. Army service was the bone-piercing bane of a peasant’s existence. Yet the gentry were at liberty to idle their lives away, exempt from mandatory conscription. The esteemed councilors of ages past have also discussed this matter many times. Yet, because it was a well-ingrained custom, they ultimately could do nothing about it. At the start of Jiazi (first year of Gojong, 1864), the Daewongun’s labor conscription for his projects caused widespread complaint, he changed his policy and instituted a tax on aristocrat and peasant alike of two strings of money per year for every man. It was called Dongpojeon, the cloth storage tax.

Grain Tax and Wahwan Returns
The government's practice of Hwangok, collecting surplus grain and releasing it back to the people as high-interest loans, had long plagued the land, and the people were being pushed to their breaking point. While many officials were familiar with their plight, none acted to help them. After the institution of the Dongpojeon tax, There was some discussion of reforming this system as well. Thus people would receive a monetary tax return in exchange for their rice. Every koku of rice would be compensated with three strings of money, and the grain would still be collected and distributed as before to support the livelihoods of the farmers. The new system was called Wahwan. After the implementation of the Dongpojeon and Wahwan taxes, the pressures on the people became lighter. Yet there were critics of these measures who claimed levying taxes on peasant and gentry alike caused the social order to become muddled. They blamed this problem on the Dongpojeon tax.

Public Granaries
In the autumn of Dingmao (fourth year of Gojong, 1867), public granaries were established across the nation. Each household would receive two strings of money paid to them by officials to serve as their funds. Then, in return, they would each contribute one koku of rice to be held in the village storehouse. In that way, it was operated by the villagers themselves, and did not fall into the control of government officials. The public grainery would distribute grain in the spring and collect it in the fall, like the Hwangok system. When the people started receiving, the Dongbeakjeon was being used. As a result, every koku was worth only two coins. At first, people complained about this new system. But after many years of operation, they praised it as a good statute. The Daewongun's policies have invited much debate, but these three reforms were no doubt benevolent.

The Rear Guard
Talented men from districts, prefectures, counties, and towns would be recruited into a division called Nanhugun, The Rear Guard. Army camps of every prefecture set up a Nanhucheong, or Rear Guard unit. They were assigned their own commanding officer and under the jurisdiction of the Royal Inspector.

Expansion of Civil Works
After the Gyeongbokgung project wrapped up, several more construction projects were initiated. The various ministry offices in the Capital were renovated afresh. Officials following the lead of the Royal Family competed to oversee civil works projects. Even the poorest villages and the most isolated areas built up magnificent city walls, pavilions, and towers. In addition, every year the government would take inventory and inspect military equipment, ensuring everything was extremely sharp. Yet less than ten years after the Daewongun's downfall, the gate of the Seonhyecheong, the Bureau of Tributes, collapsed. When the Japanese attacked, the equipment distributed to soldiers were all dull and rusted to the point that they were unusable.

Rejecting a Treaty with the Japanese
In Wuchen (fifth year of Gojong 1868), the Japanese conspired with foreigners to depose their Kampaku (Nijo Nariyuki). Once the regime changed, they attempted to re-negotiate treaties with our country. The government handled the matter abruptly, with no thought as to long term consequences. They cut off the food supply to the Japanese Embassy at Busan, provoking Japan into hostilities. The Japanese at the embassy returned to their country a short while later, yet the government gave little thought to the true ramifications of the situation. Both the District Magistrate of Donglae Chung Hyeon-deok and the Supervisor of Gyeongsang Kim Se-ho had occupied their positions for seven years with no change. The government believed that they could rely on the talents of these two officials to handle the Japanese. However, Se-ho was a gentle and literate civilian official, while Hyeon-deok had spent three years constructing the walls of his district, and killed people to establish his authority, thus losing the support of his constituents. Those who were aware of the situation were concerned, commenting, "If we could, at this very moment, select someone skilled at observing the international mood and recruit them at any cost, as a measure for a rainy day, then we would surely not be heading toward total collapse in the future!"

An Dong-jun
The village teacher An Dong-jun, in his capacity as the Japanese Embassy liaison, had been stationed at Choryang for ten years. During this time, he hiked the tariff up excessively, inciting the wrath of the local inhabitants. As a result, he was suspected of purposely provoking diplomatic incidents for the nation. At the start of Jiaxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1875), he was executed for his crimes.

Cheogyangbi
Through the years of Gengwu and Xinwei, (seventh-eighth years of Gojong, 1870-1871) an order was given for all prefectures and cities through the land to erect Cheogyangbi, Anti-Foreign stelae. Its inscription read: "When the Foreign Barbarians invade our shores, those who do not support war with them must support peace. Those who support peace are traitors who have sold out our country. This is a warning to our descendants into another millennium."

The Legitimate Heir
In the fourth month of Xinwei (eighth year of Gojong, 1871) the first legitimate heir was born. However, he died soon after.

Ma Hang-il
Ma Hang-il began as a junior officer in Gyeongseong county. He became renowned for his talent at strategy. He first rose to become the District Magistrate of Gyeongseong, and after that served seven different roles governing various prefectures and districts in the Gwanbuk region. Daewongun relied on him very much and often claimed, "With Ma Hang-il in the North and Chung Hyeon-Deok in the South, I have nothing to worry about."

Daewongun's Amnesty
When Daewongun first seized power, he wanted to comfort the populace and so court their approval. Thus, he purged the records of all criminals in the Scarlet Ledger from the previous reigns, back to the time of the Sinim Purges. Those who lost their posts were re-commissioned, and their children also regained the right to hold government positions. Those such as Sim Hwan-ji and Yi Seo-gu finally had their unjust convictions overturned, yet there were also those who were acquitted but did not deserve to be receive amnesty.

Yi Si-won's Family history
Yi Si-won, pen name Saji, passed his royal exams at the age of twenty-seven. His fifth generation ancestor was Yi Jin-geub, brother to Yi Jin-yu and Yi Jin-geom. Jin-yu and Jin-geom's downfall impacted Jin-geub and his family. His descendants were barred from taking government office for two generations. Jin-geub's grandson Chung-ig, pen name Chowon, lived under Chongbong Peak in Ganghwa. Barred from being a scholar, he instead devoted his energy to medicine, which he excelled at. He was also a master of Feng Shui, and wrote refined treatises against the common grain. Everyone said he was a man of three impossible talents.
He often evaluated the fact that his ancestors were buried at the Bay of Dongdunpo, saying, "At least one of my descendants should become famous." He would also say, "This grave has the shape of a white egret diving. My clan will prosper when white egrets come gathering." His son Yeonbaek passed his Palace Exams and became a advanced scholar. People came to congratulate the family, but Chung-ig said, "Not yet."
A few years before Si-won passed his exams, a group of white egrets gathered on their ancestral grave.
Chun-ig cast a divination on his fingers, murmuring, "How strange. Did I get it wrong?" When Si-won's good news arrived, Chun-ig laughed and said, "Just as I predicted!"
Not long after Chun-ig died. Si-won became renowned for his honor. His grandson Yi Geon-chang wrote compositions that were highly praised in his generation, and quietly retired at a young age. Everyone acknowledges that he is an esteemed official.

Yi Si-won's Integrity
Si-won had a strictly principled personality, which rarely endeared him to his fellow officials. Yet he had a talent in administration. At first, he served as Magistrate of Taecheon, where he had a good tenure. Then he was transferred to Chuncheon. The Royal Uncle Cho Byeong-gu had his funeral in that region, and all the governors and magistrates within the province attended, almost tripping over each other in their haste. Only Si-won did not go. For this, he was dismissed from his post. Later he became Royal Inspector of the Capital. The reports he sent in accusing others of crimes listed eight people above the rank of vice-minster, and ten people below that rank. Their composition was awe-inspiring. It inspired for a while a rhyme about eight horses and ten carriages.

Yi Si-won and Chung Won-yong
Saji (Yi Si-won) despised Gyeongsan's (Chung Won-yong) tendency to associate with those who held power. As a result, they did not get along. Toward the middle of Cheoljong's reign, when Gyeongsan saw that the King favored his rival's side, he constantly recommended during banquets with the king that Si-won be appointed to guard the border provinces. Over time, the King agreed, and thus Si-won was appointed Supervisor of Hamgyong.

Cheoljong's Approval of Yi Si-won
Cheoljong was by nature gentle and weak-willed. He was also controlled by the Kim family. Therefore, he was never able to decide by himself who to pick for a position. However, while he was still a civilian, he lived around the same neighborhood as Yi Si-won, and had often heard that the Royal Academy Scholar Yi was a good civil servant. He was the only one about whom Cheoljong had any knowledge. After ascending to the supreme authority, every time he sorted through official documents, whenever he saw Si-won's name come up on a nomination for a position, even if he was only the second or even last choice, his heart would leap and he would quickly mark his approval. The spot for the Governor of Kaeseong was open, and the royal pen marked out Si-won's name. Because he was chosen, Si-won served at Kaeseong for three years, during which his grandson Geon-chang was born in his office building. As a result, his childhood name was Song-yeol, as the Kaeseong had the nickname of Songdo.

Yi Si-won's Mats
Si-won had been born into a poor family. In his youth, he often wove reed mats and sold them to support himself and his parents. After he began working in government, every time he would be dismissed from his position and sent back home, he would resume his craft of weaving mats. The people of the city would recognize them at the market, and say among themselves, "These are Scholar Yi's mats."

Preliminary exams and Yi Siwon
The government created Sungkyunkwan authorized palace exams, to be held every three years in the Yin, Shen, Si, and Hai years. Meanwhile, the metropolitan exams were held every three years in the Zi, Wu, Mao, You years. Every test year, exam proctors would be dispatched from the Capital to oversee the provincial exams. Passing scholars would be labeled as "preliminary scholars" or "chosi". For the three Southern regions and Kwanseo, the provinces would be split into Left and Right Departments, with two examiners for each provinces. For the regions of Kwantong, Kwanbuk, and Haeseo, there would only be one examiner per province. Only Gyeonggi Province, as the area surrounding the Capital, would be divided into Departments One and Two, so to test the scholars of the province and the Capital. They were also open to travelling scholars who came from any direction who wished to take the exams. Because so many scholars flocked to take the exams, there were a great number of passing applicants, with almost half this number coming from the provinces. This was all because the government, trying to show that the Capital was not being exclusionary, showed leniency in grading their compositions. At first, the standards were particularly strict. Father and son were not allowed to enter the same examination. Those who wished to enter on the same year were granted special dispensation to enter the exam in some other province, a practice called "border crossing", or "wolsol". Those found crossing without dispensation would be disqualified even though they passed the exam, a practice called "weeding away", or "balgeo". Only those who attended the exams in the Capital, regardless of Department One or Two, would not require special dispensation.
Toward the middle of Chunjo's reign, the exam system had not yet suffered much deterioration. Exam proctors had to be the most educated men of their time. Regardless of achievements or standing, they could not take on the role unless they were skilled at literary composition. Yi Si-won earned a widespread good reputation as head proctor of the exams in the provincial exams of Left Yeongnam Province (nickname for Gyeongsang Province), and during the next round of exams, he headed the metropolitan exams in Right Yeongnam. Daegu City belonged to the Left Department of Yeongnam. There was an exam candidate with the surname Yi from Daegu who had been promoted to licentiate by Siwon. That year, he happened to be heading to the Capital for his exams. When he reached Joryeong, he heard that Siwon was supervising exams in the Right Department, so he turned back and went to the Right side of Yeongnam, saying, "Now I know this gentleman has come again, what need have I to go to the Capital? I will certainly pass again."
Once he took the exam there, he was picked to be the top ranking passing candidate. Top ranked candidates would have their answer sheets displayed to the rest of the candidates in the test compound, a practice called Hwijang, or Strong Writing. After the Hwijang, Siwon loudly declared to the gathered candidates, "Could this be anyone but young Yi from Daegu? I passed him once before. Unless it was him, no one could have written this work! He must have heard I was here and come to take the test under me. And here, he was able to achieve Hwijang, yet, he has no permit to cross over. With all due apologies, I must disqualify him! Do not resent me for this!"
The scholar cried out hysterically, "There have been those who achieved Hwijang in the past, and those who have been weeded out, as well as exam proctors as keen-eyed as our proctor here. Oh, but who has ever had my strange fortunes?" Saying so, he rushed away sobbing.
Even now, when people in Yeongnam discuss this, they exchange amazed sighs.
In spring of the Gengchen year (seventeenth year of Gojong, 1880) of His Majesty, special Celebratory Exams were held to celebrate the Crown Prince's recovery from smallpox. Once the results for the two Departments of Hanseong, the Capital, were out, furious criticisms abounded. His Majesty was incensed. He ordered the results to be dismissed, along with the results from the provinces. He set up a new exam complex and commissioned the original examiners to oversee a new round of exams. The original examiner for the Right Department of Yeongnam, Cho Byeong-pil, had to return home for a funeral, so Yi Kyo-ha replaced him. Before he arrived, there were mistaken rumors that Yi Geon-chang was coming to Yeongnam. Seventy or eighty of the old former test candidates who lived in the mountains and gorges came out hand in hand, saying to each other, "We of this generation have been fortunate enough to have taken the test under Minister Yi, now we hear that his grandson comes to supervise the exams. Shall we go see him?" Once the knew it was not so, they all returned home.

Yi Geon-chang Passes the Exams at Fifteen
After the Byeongin disturbance, the government held exams at Ganghwa. The Daewongun instructed the exam proctors saying, "Should Yi Geon-chang submit a an answer sheet, you must pass him. If he does not take the exam, then never mind."
Yi Geon-chang was then only fifteen. Because his grandfather had sacrificed himself, he was so despondent that he had no desire to take the exams. However, his friends and family forced him to attend. He then passed the exam. In his older years, he would often regret that incident.
Once Geon-chang had received his degree, he visited the Daewongun. The Daewongun joked with him, saying, "You're still young. Go home and study. Come back in five years and I will make you a Royal Hanlin Academy Scholar."
Five years later, Geon-chang asked the Daewongun, "Why have you not yet made me a Royal Academy Scholar?"
The Daewongun replied, "It was a joke. You can't take it seriously."
After Jiaxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1874), upon seeing Geon-chang's diligent, unerring service as an official, the Daewongun very much regretted his statements.

Ikjong and Park Gyu-su
Park Gyu-su had the courtesy name of Hwangyeon and the pen name of Hwanjae. He was the grandson of Park Ji-won, pen name Yeonam. He possessed excellent literary skills. When he was young, his family was extremely poor and he spent his days studying. When Ikjong was regent for his father, he enjoyed travelling the country in disguise. When he passed by Jahadong one night, he heard a voice like the clear chiming of jade fragments reciting book passages echo forth from a dilapidated house. He happily proceeded to make his way inside. His guards raised their hands and summoned the scholar over, saying "His Majesty arrives!"
Gyu-su fell head over heels prostrating himself. Ikjong ordered him to stand and asked him what book he had been reciting. After Gyu-su showed it to him, Ikjong said, "Study carefully. I will employ you someday."
Come the next day, rumors spread like wildfire in the Capital that the Crown Prince's palanquin had graced Park Gyu-su's home in the night. Hyu-su was also highly motivated as he continued his studies. However, not long after Ikjong ascended into the realm of the gods. Gyu-su loudly wailed and was so despondent he had no will to live. When Queen Sinjeong heard of this, she was also overwhelmed by grief. Come the regime of Cho Byeong-gu, Queen Sinjeon put the full force of her support behind him, and he soon achieved his licentiate degree At the start of Jiazi, he entered the metropolitan exams in hopes of an official position, and the exam prompt was, "Stepping out with golden lotuses, I escort Scholar Su into the Royal Academy." This was an allusion in the role Empress Xuanren played in promoting Su Dongpo.

General Sherman Incident
During Wuchen (fifth year of Gojong, 1868), Park Gyu-su served as the Supervisor of Pyeongan Province. The American who had taken on the Chinese name of Cui Lanxuan (Robert Jermain Thomas), sailed his ship into the Taedong River riding on the high tide. Once the tide retreated, the ship was left stranded. Gyu-su set out a bounty for whoever might attack and capture the vessel. A petty officer volunteered. He selected hundreds of small fishing boats, stocked them with bundles of flammable materials, and lit them ablaze. He also chose crossbowmen to fire endless volleys of arrows upon the enemy ship. They all let fly their arrows in an instant. The crossbow fire was intense and the drifting fire boats were quick. As many as quills on a porcupine, they fell upon the enemy ship. The flammable material within the enemy craft was all set ablaze in an instant. The flames covered the entire ship. The enemy burst out of the flame and ran away stepping on the water. Our army pursued them with cannon fire and struck down four or five of them. After news of the event spread, Gyu-su was given a bonus and the petty officer promoted on the basis of his achievements to Garrison Commander.
(Note: the date is mistaken, the General Sherman incident happened in 1866, third year of Gojong, Bingyin)

Park Gyu-su's Politics
Park Gyu-su was an experienced administrator and well versed in literature. At the time, many thought he was capable of great things. However, during the rule of the Daewongun, he was one of the most fanatical supporters of the anti-foreigner policy, but after Jiaxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1874) he became a fanatical supporter of a Japanese alliance instead. When he about-faced between the two sides, accommodating the politics of the times, people began to be wary of him.

Daewongun's Despotism
Formerly during Sedo politics, one man would dominate the government, but there would also be other leading figures. His relatives would often have their own bases of power. Thus they would check each other, so they might counteract each other's faults. Their only fear was that someone holding too much power would upset this balance and lead to the clan's ruin. Come the Daewongun's rule, he was an autocrat who concentrated all power in his own hands. Even an inherited role, or a promotion among the soldiers of the border, could not be enforced without Daewongun's approval. Whenever the King perused the paperwork submitted by his courtiers, the Daewongun would first mark out his decisions among candidates for a position as well as other petitions, and His Majesty could only sign off on the Daewongun's policies. The Daewongun's son Jae-myeon, his son-in-law Cho Gyeong-ho, his brother-in-law Min Seung-ho, and his other associates dared not interfere in his administration. In private, they resented him for shutting them out. Once the King was a little older, he too despised the Daewongun's despotic behavior and felt stifled under him. Thus he conspired with Jae-myeon and the others. Their grudges built up until the the end of the Xiyou year (tenth year of Gojong, 1873), when Choi Ik-hyeon submitted his petition. From then on, the political situation changed.

Surprise Disaster on the King's Jorney
In spring of Renshen (ninth year of Gojong, 1872), His Majesty paid his respects at the ancestral mausoleums of Jereung and Hureung, and would have brought his royal presence to Songdo. However, as the royal procession set on their journey, a severe storm darkened the sky. Almost instantly, the waters rose several feet, until both horses and men were submerged up to their waists. The King abandoned his carriage for a simple horse, on which he reached a peasant’s homestead. The King was in an extremely precarious condition from cold and shock. Cho Yeong-ha rode on horseback alone over several tens of miles to bring the King a gourd full of porridge. Only then could His Majesty speak. The next morning, the storm finally cleared. The procession gathered at the alternate palace, where a headcount was taken of the servants and the guards. Many men and horses had perished.

Choi Ik-hyeon Impeaches the Daewongun
Choi Ik-hyeon of Gyeongju was a native of Pocheon City who studied under Yi Hang-ro. He entered the Civil Service Exams and achieved his degree during the reign of King Cheoljong. He was stationed in Sinchang County and proved a wise administrator. He had been dismissed back to his home, and had not been given any appointments for many years. In the winter of Guiyou (tenth year of Gojong, 1873), he submitted a petition denouncing the Daewongun as a dictator who overstepped his authority. The King gave him a warm but non-committal response. The Daewongun was apoplectic, and shut himself away in his home as a response. However, the King did not even visit him, much less invite him back to the Court. Thus the Daewongun himself came before the King and recounted his prior contributions. The King still paid him no attention. He then incited Seo Seok-bo and his other supporters to collectively attack Ik-hyeon for sowing discord between family members of the same blood and forcing His Majesty to mistreat his own father. Seo's petition included the phrase "The essence of Yao and Shun was no more than love and filial piety." The King's rage knew no bounds. He personally subjected Seok-bo to a royal Inquisition, suspending him from a rope until he was near death, then having him confined to Imjado island on strictest commands. After that, His Majesty sought to promote Ik-hyeon to Deputy Minister of Personnel, but Ik-hyeon appealed to refuse the appointment.

Min Seung-ho's Regime
After Choi Ik-hyeon's petition, figures like Mok Nae-seon, Han Hyo-sun, and Yi Hyeon-il once again had their posthumous titles rescinded, and Qing currency was abolished. This was all in accordance with the proposals in the petition. In spring of Jiaxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1874), the Daewongun was evicted from Unhyeon Palace and retired to Chikdong in Yangju. The King's favor toward him immediately ceased.
After that, Min Seung-ho took control of the nation. All Southerner Party members in the government were expelled. Royal Inspectors were sent across the nation, and any provincial officials who were affiliates of the Northerners, Southerners, or Daewongun were all found out and dismissed. With the collapse of their power, the Southerners mourned as if they had lost a loving mother. The learned men of the national academies and various provincial scholars all flocked to appeal to rectify the injustice done to the purged officials and harshly critique His Majesty's policy. In July, Ryu Do-seok of Yeongnam and Jo Byeong-man of Honam gathered a ten thousand man petition. The King was enraged and ordered the two ringleaders arrested and imprisoned in the Podocheong (Agency for Arresting Criminals), intending to execute them. The Daewongun left Chikdong and headed straight into the Palace. He plead passionately for the lives of two prisoners, threatening to commit suicide if the sentence was carried out. His Majesty had no choice but to pardon and release all the petitioners. He ordered the Royal Secretariat to stop accepting any appeals relating the Daewongun from then on. After that the appeals stopped.

Qing Currency Discontinued
Qing currency was abolished come the first month of Renxu (eleventh year of Gojong, 1874). At the time all business transactions in the Capital and elsewhere used Qing currency. Over the course of a single day, all money across the country became worthless. Exchanges of merchandise could not be conducted and many people became unemployed. Only those who stockpiled Sangpyeong coins reaped a profit several times over. Several months later, the economy recovered somewhat as the old currency spread around.

By the Daewongun's Instruction
The Unhyeon Daewongun held power for ten years, and his will dominated both at home and abroad. The words "The Daewongun instructs..." travelled 3000 miles over the wind, resounding like thunderclaps and tidal waves. Both officials and commoners lived in terror, constantly fretting over the laws they served under. Day in and day out, rumors flew like wildfire of those who entered the capital being secretly arrested and executed, so that even in the wildest mountains and furthest wetlands, the frightened folk lost their wills to live. Upon his fall, everyone congratulated each other. Those who discussed him agreed that if the Unhyeon Daewongun were not removed from power, then he would be the ruin of the nation. They could not expect that now, with the ascension of the Min clan, the people, unable to keep up with their depredations, would utter many a sigh and long for the Daewongun's regime. Just as Han Dynasty scholars say, the hearts of the populace are fickle. When they long for the like of Wang Mang, they are not doing so out of any affection for him!

Choi Ik-hyeon
Having submitted his petition, Choi Ik-hyeon went on to submit more petitions. His majesty readily allowed the Daewongun to deal with as he would, and handed Ik-hyeon to the Ministry of Justice, or Uigeumbu. When he was released from prison, city folks from all walks of life celebrated the new survival of Loyal Minister Choi with jugs of alchol and bags of incense, filling the streets and alleyways with firecrackers. Thus the name of Loyal Minister Choi spread far and wide across the kingdom, and his petition was discussed and memorized in every household, like the missives of famous officials from ages past. For a while his writings were the new bestseller, yet certain wise men criticized his description of the Daewongun as a dictator for disrupting traditional family values. In the future, His Majesty would treat the Daewongun very coldly, leading to Choi's petition becoming a lasting topic of conversation.
"Since times immemorial, dictators, without exception, have risen from the ranks of marriage alliances, eunuchs, and war heroes. All are outside of the royal family. Yet the Daewongun and His Majesty are father and son, a bond that none can interfere with. Thus the academics all said Daewongun's power would last his entire lifetime. Then one day, when he was ousted, his options were sealed off worse than any others who had lost power. His rise was astronomical, and so his fall plunges the depths. Thus is the natural order of the world."

Choi Ik-hyeon Rejects the Bingzi Treaty
Seeing how Choi's petition suddenly burst in on the scene, and how he was rewarded afterwards, there were those that believed he was a mouthpiece taking instructions from others. Then, during the Bingzi (thirteenth year of Gojong, 1876) conference on seeking peace with Japan, Ik-hyeon, bringing up the examples of Woo Tak and Jo Heon, submitted his proposals while wielding an axe, his protests about the peace plan being particularly passionate. After he was ordered to go into exile on Black Mountain Island, all suspicions of his motives died down.

Choi Ik-Hyeon's Filial Piety
Choi Ik-hyeon's family was extremely poor, but he was extremely sincere and loving when it came to taking care of his father. Every time the weather turned cold, he would light the ondol heater in his father's bedroom on his own. It was not that he had no one else there to do it, but none could get the temperature just right. He planted his own food and cut his own firewood. Everything that was to be done on his farm, he did on his own. If he had business in the Capital, he made the journey to-and-fro on foot. In his later years, as his ambitions simmered down but his position rose ever higher, he received lofty praise from all men of his age.

The Daewongun's Rule
The Daewongun, with his status of the King's Honored Father, acted in the role of Chancellor without positioning himself as the supreme authority. He was very obviously a regent. During that decade, no major issues affected the nation. It was a rare chance ripe for some great undertaking. If he were to have bustled about, neglecting his own health and hygiene to gather at his side heroes and learned men, seek out good political agendas, shield the populace from exploitation, and show mercy to all, then his good example could have radiated through the royal court and beyond, as with Sima Guang during the Yuanyou era. That would have followed the flow of current events, so that even though he could not restore absolute harmony to the world, with the blessing of Heaven, talented men would emerge to meet the needs of the age. If our people were properly guided for ten years, would there be anything we were incapable of achieving? Yet the Daewongun slobbered over the wealth of the Jang Kims. Once he achieved his ambitions, he gave way to lust and hubris, indulging his own wild whims, matching and even surpassing the excesses of the Jang Kims. He hurt our nation at its core, offended the peasantry, and wasted his reign of ten years construction projects and favoring barbarian behavior. Alas! Is this the product of our times and fortunes? A millennium later, there shall yet be those who bewail and despise this man!

The Twelve Sarangchae of the Jang Kim
In their heyday, the entire clan of the Jang Kim numbered among the nation's powerful elites. The clans that accepted their patronage numbered twelve in total. They were called the Jang King's Twelve Sarangchae, with sarangchae being a colloquial term for a study room. Provincial officials exploited the populace in every possible way so they might fatten their own wallets, paying no heed to antibribery laws. The Daewongun had always been keenly aware of their corruption, so after he came into power, he spared no offenders, no matter how intimate they were to him. During Chae Tong-swul's tenure as the Governor of Pongsan, he was still caned in the Jongno District in accordance with the law. Thus the rest of the regional authorities learned to practice discretion.